The magnesium–gadolinium system is a new step in the development of promising magnesium alloys

Volkova E.F., Akinina M.V., Mostyaev I.V., Duyunova V.A., Alikhanyan A.A.
Volkova E.F., Akinina M.V., Mostyaev I.V., Duyunova V.A., Alikhanyan A.A. The magnesium–gadolinium system is a new step in the development of promising magnesium alloys // Proceedings of VIAM. 2026. No. 5. DOI: 10.18577/2307-6046-2026-0-5-25-41. URL: https://test.viam.ru/en/journal/2026/5/3
Keywords
long-period stacking ordered phase, gadolinium, double extrusion, the method of rotary swaging, wire-arc directed energy deposition, evolution of the microstructure, intermetallic phase
Abstract

The article provides an analysis of scientific and technical publications on the development of new magnesium alloys. It has been established that the most intensive research is conducted on alloys containing gadolinium as the main alloying component. It has been shown that alloys of the Mg–Gd–Y–Zn–Zr, Mg–Gd–Y–Zn (containing long-period stacking ordered phase) systems, as well as the systems: Mg–Gd–Y–Zr, Mg–Gd–Zr–Ag are very promising in the case of applying non-standard technologies and processing schemes to them: a complex technological chain, including various types of deformation and heat treatment; technology of rotary pressing; modern technology of wire-arc directed energy deposition, etc.

Reference list
  1. Kablov E.N. Main results and directions of development of materials for advanced aviation technology. 75 years. Aviation materials and technologies. Moscow: VIAM, 2007, pp. 20–26.
  2. Kablov E.N. Innovative developments of FSUE «VIAM» SSC of RF on realization of «Strategic directions of the development of materials and technologies of their processing for the period until 2030». Aviacionnye materialy i tehnologii, 2015, no. 1 (34), pp. 3–33. DOI: 10.18577/2071-9140-2015-0-1-3-33.
  3. Emli E.F. Fundamentals of the Technology of Production and Processing of Magnesium Alloys. Ed. M.E. Drits. Moscow: Metallurgiya, 1972, 488 p.
  4. Kablov E.N. New Generation Materials – the Basis for Innovation, Technological Leadership, and National Security of Russia. Intellekt i tekhnologii, 2016, no. 2 (14), pp. 16–21.
  5. Magnesium alloys for aerospace market transformation and outlook. Market Research Intellect: An international provider of market research reports. Available at: http://www.marketresearchintellect.com (accessed: February 02, 2026).
  6. Magnesium alloys: handbook in 2 parts. Ed. M.B. Altman, M.E. Dritz, M.A. Timonova, M.V. Chukhrov. Moscow: Metallurgiya, 1978, part 1: Metallurgy of magnesium and its alloys. Application areas, 232 p.
  7. Akinina M.V., Mostyaev I.V., Volkova E.F., Alikhanyan A.A. Comparative studies of the structure, features of the phase composition and mechanical properties of deformed semi-finished products from VMD16 magnesium alloy. Aviation materials and technologies, 2022, no. 4 (69), pp. 36–50. Available at: http://www.journal.viam.ru (accessed: February 02, 2026). DOI: 10.18577/2713-0193-2022-0-4-36-50.
  8. Volkova E.F., Leonov A.A., Akinina M.V., Mostyaev I.V., Alikhanyan A.A. Rare earth metals and progress in the field of deformable magnesium alloys. Review. Tekhnologiya legkikh splavov, 2025, no. 4, pp. 23–38.
  9. Akinina M.V., Mostyaev I.V., Volkova E.F., Alikhanyan A.A. Investigation of the influence of alloying elements on the temperature threshold of ignition and fire resistance of a VMD16 wrought magnesium alloy. Aviation materials and technologies, 2022, no. 3 (68), pp. 60–74. Available at: http://www.journal.viam.ru (accessed: February 02, 2026). DOI: 10.18577/2713-0193-2022-0-3-60-74.
  10. Volkova E.F., Mostyaev I.V., Akinina M.V., Alikhanyan A.A. Studies of the regularities of the heat treatment influence on the structure, phase composition and mechanical properties of medium-sized forgings made of heat-resistant alloy of the Mg‒Zn‒Zr‒REE system. Trudy VIAM, 2024, no. 1 (131), pp. 13–26. Available at: http://www.viam-works.ru (accessed: February 02, 2026). DOI: 10.18577/2307-6046-2024-0-1-13-26.
  11. Karachevtsev F.N., Eroshkin S.G., Trofimov N.V., Leonov A.A., Popovnina N.A. Development of standard samples of magnesium alloy ML19. Trudy VIAM, 2022, no. 1 (107), pp. 26–34. Available at: http://www.viam-works.ru (accessed: February 02, 2026). DOI: 10.18577/2307-6046-2022-0-1-26-34.
  12. Yoshimoto S., Yamasaki M., Kawamura Y. Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Extruded Mg–Zn–Y Alloys with 14H Long Period Ordered Structure. Materials Transactions, 2006, vol. 47, pp. 959–965.
  13. Kawamura Y., Yamasaki M. Formation and Mechanical Properties of Mg97Zn1RE2 Alloys with Long-Period Stacking Ordered Structure. Materials Transactions, 2007, vol. 48, is. 11, pp. 2986–2992.
  14. Hagihara K., Yokotani N., Umakoshi Y. Plastic deformation behavior of Mg12YZn with 18R long-period stacking ordered structure. Intermetallics, 2010, vol. 18, pp. 267–276.
  15. Hagihara K., Kinoshita A., Sugino Y. et al. Effect of long-period stacking ordered phase on mechanical properties of Mg97Zn1Y2 extruded alloy. Acta Materialia, 2010, vol. 58, pp. 6282–6293.
  16. Noda M., Matsumoto R., Kawamura Y. Forging Induces Changes in the Formability and Microstructure of Extruded Mg96Zn2Y2 Alloy with a Long-Period Stacking Order Phase. Material Science and Engineering A, 2013, vol. 563, pp. 21–27.
  17. Hagihara K., Kinoshita A., Fukusumi Y. et al. Hightemperature compressive deformation behavior of Mg97Zn1Y2 extruded alloy containing a long period stacking ordered (LPSO) phase. Materials Science and Engineering A, 2013, vol. 560, pp. 71–79.
  18. Yasuda N., Kimura S. Measurement of Thermal Expansion Coefficient of 18R-Synchronized Long-Period Stacking Ordered Magnesium Alloy. Materials Transactions, 2016, vol. 57, is. 6, pp. 1010–1013.
  19. Volkova E.F., Antipov V.V., Zavodov A.V. A Study of the Fine Structure and Phase Composition of Magnesium Alloy VMD16 in Cast and Homogenized Conditions. Metal Science and Heat Treatment, 2019, vol. 61 (19), pp. 143–148.
  20. Volkova E.F., Rokhlin L.L., Ovsyannikov B.V. Modern wrought magnesium alloys: status and application prospects in high-tech industries: textbook. Ed. E.N. Kablov. Moscow: VIAM, 2021, 392 p.
  21. Mostyaev I.V. Study of the influence of forging, stamping, and heat treatment process parameters on the structure, phase composition, and property level of deformed semi-finished products made of heat-resistant magnesium alloy grade VMD16: thesis, Cand. Sc. (Thech.). Moscow, 2024, 153 p.
  22. Leonov A.A. Casting magnesium alloys of the Mg–REE–Zr system with elevated ignition temperature: thesis, Cand. Sc. (Thech.). Moscow, 2024, 125 p.
  23. Volkova E.F., Akinina M.V., Mostyaev I.V. The ways of rising of wrought magnesium alloys main mechanical characteristics. Trudy VIAM, 2017, no. 10 (58), pp. 15–23. Available at: http://www.viam-works.ru (accessed: February 03, 2026). DOI: 10.18577/2307-6046-2017-0-10-2-2.
  24. Wang J., Khan M.A., Dai S. et al. Effect of double-extrusion following by stepwise-hot-rolling on microstructures and mechanical properties of Mg–Gd–Y–Zn–Zr alloy. Journal of Magnesium and Alloys, 2025, vol. 13, is. 9, pp. 4327–4345.
  25. Zhao X., Yang Z., Zhang J. et al. Formation and transformation of metastable LPSO building blocks clusters in Mg–Gd–Y–Zn–Zr alloys by spinodal decomposition and heterogeneous nucleation. Journal of Magnesium and Alloys, 2024, vol. 12, is. 2, pp. 673–686.
  26. Liu H., Xue F., Bai J. et al. Formation Behavior of 14H Long Period Stacking Ordered Structure in Mg–Y–Zn Cast Alloys with Different α-Mg Fractions. Journal of Materials Science & Technology, 2016, vol. 32, is. 12, pp. 1267–1273.
  27. Li R.G., Nie J.F., Huang G.J. et al. Development of high-strength magnesium alloys via combined processes of extrusion, rolling and ageing. Scripta Materialia, 2011, vol. 64, is. 10, pp. 950–953.
  28. Zhang Y., Rong W., Wu Y., Peng L. Achieving ultra-high strength in Mg–Gd–Ag–Zr wrought alloy via bimodal-grained structure and enhanced precipitation. Journal of Materials Science & Technology, 2020, vol. 54, pp. 160–170.
  29. Fan M., Cui Y., Zhang Y. et al. Achieving high strength-ductility synergy in a Mg97Y1Zn1Ho1 alloy via a nano-spaced long-period stacking-ordered phase. Journal of Magnesium and Alloys, 2023, vol. 11, is. 4, pp. 1321–1331.
  30. Lukyanova E.A., Rokhlin L.L., Tabachkova N.Yu. et al. Reversion after ageing in an Mg–Y–Gd–Zr alloy. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2015, vol. 635, pp. 173–179.
  31. Pollock T.M. Weight Loss with Magnesium Alloys. Science, 2010, vol. 328 (5981), рр. 986–987.
  32. Proust G. Processing magnesium at room temperature. Science, 2019, vol. 365 (6448), pp. 30–31. DOI: 10.1126/ science.aax9732.
  33. Wu G., Wang C., Sun M., Ding W. Recent developments and applications on high-performance cast magnesium rare-earth alloys. Journal of Magnesium and Alloys, 2021, vol. 9, is. 1, pp. 1–20.
  34. Gu D., Shi X., Poprawe R. et al. Material-structure-performance integrated laser-metal additive manufacturing. Science, 2021, vol. 372 (6545), pp. eabg1487. DOI: 10.1126/science.abg1487.
  35. Huang K., Li X., Fang X., Lu B. State-of-the-Art Progress and Outlook in Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing of Magnesium Alloys. Acta Metallurgica Sinica, 2025, vol. 61, is. 3, pp. 397–419.
  36. Li X., Fang X., Jiang X. et al. Additively manufactured high-performance AZ91D magnesium alloys with excellent strength and ductility via nanoparticles reinforcement. Additive Manufacturing, 2023, vol. 69, art. 103550. DOI: 10.1016/j.addma.2023.103550.
  37. Li X., Fang X., Wang S. et al. Selective laser melted AZ91D magnesium alloy with superior balance of strength and ductility. Journal of Magnesium and Alloys, 2022, vol. 11, is. 12, pp. 4644–4658.
  38. Li K., Chen W., Yin B. et al. A comparative study on WE43 magnesium alloy fabricated by laser powder bed fusion coupled with deep cryogenic treatment: Evolution in microstructure and mechanical properties. Additive Manufacturing, 2023, vol. 77, art. 103814. DOI: 10.1016/j.addma.2023.103814.
  39. Ling C., Li Q., Zhang Z. et al. Influence of heat treatment on microstructure, mechanical and corrosion behavior of WE43 alloy fabricated by laser-beam powder bed fusion. International Journal of Extreme Manufacturing, 2023, vol. 6 (1), art. 015001. DOI: 10.1088/ 2631-7990/acfad5.
  40. Jiang Y., Tang H., Li Z. et al. Additive manufactured Mg–Gd–Y–Zr alloys: Effects of Gd content on microstructure evolution and mechanical properties. Additive Manufacturing, 2022, vol. 59, part A, art. 103136. DOI: 10.1016/j.addma.2022.103136.
  41. Li X., Guo J., Zhang M. et al. Uncovering the impact of Gd content on the microstructure and mechanical properties of wire-arc directed energy deposited Mg–Gd–Y–Zr alloys. Journal of Magnesium and Alloys, 2025. DOI: 10.1016/j.jma.2025.04.019.
  42. Li X., Fang X., Fang D. et al. On the excellent strength-ductility synergy of wire-arc directed energy deposited Mg–Gd–Y–Zn–Zr alloy via manipulating precipitates. Additive Manufacturing, 2023, vol. 77, art. 103794. DOI: 10.1016/j.addma.2023.103794.
  43. Li X., Fang X., Zhang M. et al. Enhanced strength-ductility synergy of magnesium alloy fabricated by ultrasound assisted directed energy deposition. Journal of Materials Science & Technology, 2024, vol. 178, pp. 247–261.
  44. Li X., Fang X., Zhang M. et al. Gradient microstructure and prominent performance of wire-arc directed energy deposited magnesium alloy via laser shock peening. International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, 2023, vol. 188, art. 104029. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2023.104029.
  45. Li X., Fang X., Zhang Z. et al. Revealing precipitation behavior and mechanical response of wire-arc directed energy deposited Mg–Gd–Y–Zr alloy by tailoring aging procedures. International Journal of Extreme Manufacturing, 2024, vol. 6 (4), art. 045001. DOI: 10.1088/2631-7990/ad35fd.
  46. Li X., Zhang M., Fang X. et al. Improved strength-ductility synergy of directed energy deposited AZ31 magnesium alloy with cryogenic cooling mode. Virtual and Physical Prototyping, 2023, vol. 18, is. 1, art. e2170252. DOI: 10.1080/17452759.2023.2170252.
  47. Cao Q., Zeng C., Qi B. et al. Excellent isotropic mechanical properties of directed energy deposited Mg–Gd–Y–Zr alloys via establishing homogeneous equiaxed grains embedded with dispersed nano-precipitation. Additive Manufacturing, 2023, vol. 67, art. 103498. DOI: 10.1016/j.addma.2023.103498.
  48. Ma D., Xu C., Sui S. et al. Microstructure evolution and mechanical properties of wire arc additively manufactured Mg–Gd–Y–Zr alloy by post heat treatments. Virtual and Physical Prototyping, 2023, vol. 18, is. 1, art. e2225492. DOI: 10.1080/17452759.2023.2225492.
  49. Tong X., Wu G., Easton M.A. et al. Microstructural evolution and strengthening mechanism of Mg–Y–RE–Zr alloy fabricated by quasi-directed energy deposition. Additive Manufacturing, 2023, vol. 67, art. 103487. DOI: 10.1016/j.addma.2023.103487.
  50. Ma D., Xu C., Sui S. et al. Customized heat treatment process enabled excellent mechanical properties in wire arc additively manufactured Mg–RE–Zn–Zr alloys. International Journal of Extreme Manufacturing, 2024, vol. 6 (4), art. 045006. DOI: 10.1088/2631-7990/ad48ea.